Studies show that there appear to be two major patterns of IPV [2]. The first is a more severe type of abuse that encompasses multiple and various forms of abusive behaviors. In this classification, the abuse and violence escalates and the perpetrator increasingly attempts to control, monitor, and intimidate the victim. The second is a more moderate form of abuse whereby physical violence is occasionally perpetrated [2]. Some IPV victims do not experience any physical or sexual abuse for many years; rather, they regularly experience non-physical forms of abuse, such as emotional, psychological, social, and economic abuse [4]. The terms emotional and psychological abuse are often used interchangeably; however, they are distinct entities [4]. Emotional abuse consists of behaviors that are meant to gradually deteriorate the victim's dignity, self-respect, and self-worth. These behaviors might involve insults, put-downs, name-calling, and public humiliation. On the other hand, psychological abuse is meant to gradually diminish a victim's rational perceptions, to make one feel "crazy." The underlying intention in all types of abuse is power and control [4]. Although there is no consensus operational definition for the term "coercive control," most agree that it can exist without the use of physical or sexual violence. Continual monitoring and surveillance, mind games, and low-level threats can serve as an effective means for the perpetrator to control the victim [17,38]. Rather, previous incidences of partner violence can result in the victim feeling threatened and intimidated [17,51]. Jealousy, controlling behaviors, and threatening and sexually coercive behaviors result in a continual sense of fear and isolation in victims [38]. Understanding these dynamics provides a context in how technology can be used by perpetrators to reinforce power and control.

Texting remains the most commonly used feature on the smartphone. The majority of people who own a smartphone (97%) have texted at least once [62]. On average, more than two-thirds of Americans check their texts 160 of more times per day [104]. Roughly the same proportion report sleeping with a cell phone by their bedside [104]. In general, adolescents are the largest consumers of text messaging on cell phones, and a Pew Internet survey showed that 38% of teens texted friends on a daily basis in 2008; this increased to 54% by 2009 [14]. As of 2015, 90% of teens with phones text every day [15]. Adolescents (14 to 17 years of age) who text frequently send and receive 30 to more than 100 texts daily [14,15]. These texts are not only sent via telephones' text feature, but are shared through messaging apps such as Facebook Messenger, Snapchat, WhatsApp, or Telegram. In 2014, 88% of adolescents 13 to 17 years of age had their own cell phones or access to cell phones [15]. About 95% of teens with mobile web access go online at least once per day and about 25% say they are "constantly online."

Cyberstalking is a term coined to describe using computers or electronic communications to harass and intimidate. There is also an element of humiliation, particularly when tactics are intended to facilitate the victim's loss of control in the relationship. This is often a risk marker for danger or even lethality [110].

Harassers might use the following electronic communication methods to harass their victims [26,68,86]:

Social networking is a form of online communication that is comprised of "web-based services that allow individuals to construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection, and view and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within the system" [27]. As noted, examples of social networking sites include Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn, Google+, and Pinterest.

With increasingly sophisticated and easily accessible software, hardware, and spyware programs, which are typically marketed for parents to monitor their children's Internet activity, abusers have additional tools to monitor and control victims' online activities. For example, abusers can install spyware (also referred to as malware or stalkware) on victims' computers and gain the ability to take screenshots of the computer, record passwords and personal identification codes, track websites visited, and record incoming and outgoing e-mails, text messages, and chats [30,58,70,88]. Whenever the computer is used, e-mails reporting the computer activity are then sent to the abuser [26,28]. Other abusers have used keystroke loggers, a hardware device that is plugged into the keyboard and the computer and records everything typed, including e-mails, passwords, and URLs [28]. Some perpetrators use tracking apps, GPS trackers, and location-based apps to monitor victims' whereabouts and movements [111]. Abusers give gifts to victims or children with secretly installed trackers [112].

Although this course focuses on increasing practitioners' awareness of how technology can be used by abusers to harm victims of IPV, it is important to briefly review how the Internet and other forms of electronic technology have positively changed the landscape of the counseling, social service, mental health, and health arenas, particularly for victims of violence. In a study exploring how Internet technology was used by IPV organizations, seven types of direct online services were identified [37]:

Empowerment is a recurrent theme in the use of technology by IPV victims. First, victims are able to easily access information. Being able to easily retrieve information and communicate with practitioners using multiple communication vehicles can promote patient/client autonomy, increasing victims' sense of confidence, self-efficacy, and empowerment in terms of making decisions that promote their well-being and safety. For example, all 50 states have an IPV coalition, with a website for the public to access information about IPV, resources, shelters, and safety planning. Victims of intimate partner violence can also research information about restraining orders, shelters, and employment opportunities [35]. In a study by the Technology Safety Project of the Washington State Coalition Against Domestic Violence, a project designed to promote awareness of how technology can increase the risk of IPV, participants indicated that the Internet was an important tool when researching strategies to promote safety, allowing victims to play an active role in their own care [21,39,91]. Internet technology has also been used to provide education regarding general life skills for IPV victims, such as job training, money management, and practical survival skills. Victims have reported using the Internet to help search for housing, obtain assistance in creating a résumé, and enhance their skills in order to get a job [21]. Some of these services are offered in both real-time and non-real-time [115]. Internet technology may also be used to help raise awareness about IPV and to educate the public about intimate partner violence, how to obtain services, and how to protect oneself [71; 91; 115].

Many IPV organizations disseminate a message of fear in their communications about Internet safety [41]. Providers often suggest and may even pressure victims to disconnect themselves from their devices, change passwords/settings, and/or remove themselves from social networking sites [119]. However, this places the burden back on the victim and can result in further isolation and less access to existing support networks. It may also be associated with further escalation of the abuse [111]. Although fear can initially invoke safety behaviors, fear tactics tend to actually prevent the behavior that one is trying to promote over time. In other words, while a low amount of fear may not trigger any safety behaviors because individuals do not perceive the threat as real, employing a tremendous amount of fear in education and communications can also prove ineffective if individuals perceive there are no viable options to mitigate the fear. In these cases, victims may merely suppress the fear and not engage in any safety behavior [41]. As a result, practitioners must strike a balance in providing both education and support. The following precautions can promote technologic safety for victims and survivors of intimate partner violence [42,43,44,70,93,113,114]:

Practitioners should also familiarize themselves with the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA). VAWA, enacted in 1994 and reauthorized in 2000, 2005, 2013, and 2021, was the first federal legislation that addressed IPV and other forms of violence against women. Since the first enactment, the legislation has been updated to touch on relevant issues such as privacy, the role of the Internet, and cyberstalking. Before anyone or any court can obtain private information, agencies funded by VAWA must make every reasonable effort to obtain permission and releases from victims [49]. Furthermore, VAWA restricts the online publication of filings for orders of protection as this could place victims at risk for discovery by perpetrators [49]. The 2005 reauthorization of VAWA updated stalking laws to reflect the use of Internet and electronic communications for the purposes of monitoring and harassing [49]. The 2013 reauthorization helped to ensure that services are available to persons of all sexual/gender identities, all races/ethnicities, college students, young adults, and immigrants [29]. The 2022reauthorization provides additional funding for culturally specific services, housing services such as federally assisted housing for victims, and access to unemployment insurance [94]. Finally, the Stopping Harmful Image Exploitation and Limiting Distribution (SHIELD) Act was introduced as a bipartisan bill in 2019. The goal was to provide protections for victims of nonconsensual sexual imagery and set criminal penalties for offenders. It was not enacted, but it was added as an amendment to the VAWA [114,120].