|
| A) | Texas | ||
| B) | Vermont | ||
| C) | California | ||
| D) | South Dakota |
In the United States, the largest rural population (6.8 million residents) is found in the East North Central region; this is followed by the South Atlantic (5.7 million) [10]. The five states with the largest proportion of rural residents are Vermont, Wyoming, Maine, Montana, and Mississippi [9].
| A) | be single. | ||
| B) | have Internet access. | ||
| C) | have completed college. | ||
| D) | live in the same state in which they were born. |
Rural residents are more likely to be married than urban residents (61.9% vs. 50.8%). There is also less mobility compared with urban populations. An estimated 65.4% of rural residents live in the same state they were born in, compared with 48.3% of their urban counterparts [11].
Rural residents tend to have achieved lower levels of education than urban residents. In rural areas, 19.5% have attained a bachelor's degree or higher, compared with 29% of those in urban areas. The digital divide is greater in rural communities; 23.8% of rural households do not have Internet access, while 17.3% of urban households do not have Internet access [11].
| A) | Manufacturing | ||
| B) | Entertainment | ||
| C) | Education and health | ||
| D) | Leisure and hospitality |
Rural civilian employment among persons 18 to 64 years of age is lower (67.6%) than that reported for urban residents (70%) [15]. Three major service industries together with manufacturing provide more than 70% of rural employment: education and health (25%); trade, transportation, and utilities (20%); and leisure and hospitality (11%). Manufacturing, farming, and mining have historically been the goods production focus for rural areas [16]. Rural employment was severely impacted by the 2008 recession, and rates have still not fully recovered. According to the USDA, half of the observed decline in the unemployment rate since 2010 is due to a reduction in the size of the labor force, not an increase in employment, which is partly the result of little or no population growth in rural America [17]. Regardless, employment for rural America lags below the 2007 figures. This has been further complicated by the COVID-19 pandemic. By April 2020, mainly due to COVID-19 and related pressures, rural unemployment rates reached 13.6%, a level not seen since the 1930s. As of the end of 2021, unemployment rates among rural residents had returned to pre-pandemic numbers, recovering more quickly than unemployment in metropolitan areas [16,17].
| A) | Customs | ||
| B) | Language | ||
| C) | Value systems | ||
| D) | Specific practices |
Culture has been conceptualized as a diversity domain, characterized by having specific value systems, norms, and social and behavioral patterns [20]. Specifically, culture refers to the values and knowledge of groups in a society; it consists of approved behaviors, norms of conduct, and value systems [21,22]. Culture also involves attitudes and beliefs that are passed from generation to generation within a group. These patterns include language, religious beliefs, institutions, artistic expressions, ways of thinking, and patterns of social and interpersonal relations [23]. Culture can also represent worldviews—encompassing assumptions and perceptions about the world and how it works [24]. Culture has two components: the observable and the unobservable [25]. The observable include things such as language, customs, and specific practices, while the unobservable include beliefs, norms, and value systems. Culture helps to elucidate why groups of people act and respond to the environment as they do [26].
| A) | Support networks are naturally occurring. | ||
| B) | Rural areas are characterized by more formal social relationships. | ||
| C) | There is a more collectivistic approach compared with urban communities. | ||
| D) | Family, church, and community are the traditional underpinnings of rural life. |
Family, church, and community are the traditional underpinnings of rural life [29,31]. There is a more collectivistic approach compared with urban communities [31,32]. Community and mutuality are shared values, and families rely on each other and their community for help [33]. Support networks are naturally occurring [34]. Rural areas are also characterized by more informal social relationships. Rural residents tend to utilize long-standing community institutions as social outlets, such as schools, churches, community clubs, and farmers' organizations [34,36]. Neighbors, family, and friends are crucial components of one's natural support networks, particularly in times of crisis [37]. The Walsh Center for Rural Analysis reported that rural residents described their communities as having a "community spirit" and a "culture of cooperation," exhibited by residents having close ties not only to their families but with community and neighborhood associations and strong religious affiliations [35].
| A) | True | ||
| B) | False |
While self-reliance and independence are values that can assist individuals during times of crisis, they can also negatively influence health beliefs and help-seeking behaviors. Persons with this perspective seek health services only when problems are severe. This is especially true of mental health services, as mental illness is often incorrectly perceived as a problem with personal willpower [38]. Because self-reliance is a major part of the cultural rural fabric, obtaining help may be viewed as a sign of weakness and burdensome to others [7]. For this same reason, rural residents often feel that obtaining services from safety net programs is stigmatizing.
| A) | Cultural humility, cultural curiosity, appropriation, and formal learning | ||
| B) | Cultural cooperation, conductive learning, self-critique, and skill acquisition | ||
| C) | Cultural awareness, knowledge acquisition, skills development, and inductive learning | ||
| D) | Knowledge development, cultural exploration, cultural safety, and interprofessional collaboration |
Cultural competence is a professional mandate in the health professions [42]. The Joint Commission has standards for cultural competence for health organizations [43]. In its Code of Ethics, the National Association of Social Workers requires that all social workers "demonstrate understanding of culture and its function in human behavior and society, recognizing the strengths that exist in all cultures" [44]. Cultural competency is a dynamic process and an ongoing journey that is informed by cultural encounters [45]. It cannot be achieved by completing a course or training; rather, cultural competence involves continual learning throughout one's professional career in four different areas [22,46]:
Cultural awareness
Knowledge acquisition
Skills development
Inductive learning
| A) | poverty. | ||
| B) | structural inequities. | ||
| C) | insufficient access to health care. | ||
| D) | All of the above |
Health disparity can be an ambiguous term, and there is not yet a consensus definition. Very basically, health disparities are differences in health or mental health status that systematically and adversely affect less advantaged groups [53]. These inequities are often linked to historical and current unequal distribution of resources due to poverty, structural inequities, insufficient access to health care, and/or environmental barriers and threats [54]. Healthy People 2030 has defined a health disparity as [55]:
…a particular type of health difference that is closely linked with social, economic, and/or environmental disadvantage. Health disparities adversely affect groups of people who have systematically experienced greater obstacles to health based on their racial or ethnic group; religion; socioeconomic status; gender; age; mental health; cognitive, sensory, or physical disability; sexual orientation or gender identity; geographic location; or other characteristics historically linked to discrimination or exclusion.
| A) | Obesity | ||
| B) | Cancer | ||
| C) | Respiratory illness | ||
| D) | Infectious diseases |
Rural health disparities exist on a global level. Worldwide, 56% of rural residents lack health insurance, compared with just 22% in urban areas [58]. In the United States, national physical and mental health outcomes have improved over the years; however, these improvements are not as large in rural communities. Today, incidences of obesity, diabetes, cancer, heart disease, and respiratory illness are all higher in rural areas than urban areas [59,60]. For example, in 2016, the diabetes prevalence rate was 12.6% for rural U.S. communities but 9.9% in urban areas in the United States [12]. In addition, high-risk behaviors, such as not using a seat belt, tobacco use, and substance abuse, are more prevalent in rural communities [59,60]. Furthermore, rural residents are more likely to consume calorie-dense and lower nutrient foods and are less physically active [60]. More rural residents themselves rate their health as fair to poor (19.5%), compared with urban residents (15.6%) [29].
| A) | True | ||
| B) | False |
Rural Americans with mental health needs typically enter care later, have more serious symptoms, and require more costly and intensive treatment [63]. In 2020, 21% of adults in nonmetropolitan counties had some form of mental illness and 6% experienced serious mental illness [64]. Suicide rates have been increasing across the United States, led by areas considered less urban, with the gap in rates between less urban and urban areas widening between 1999 and 2016; furthermore, suicide with a firearm is two times higher among rural residents than those in urban areas [65,66,67]. While White men are at highest risk for suicide nationally, in rural areas American Indians/Alaska Natives are the most affected [65,66]. In 2020, 5% of rural adults reported serious thoughts of suicide [64].
| A) | 1.3% | ||
| B) | 13% | ||
| C) | 27% | ||
| D) | 43% |
Substance use disorder refers to a set of related conditions associated with the consumption of mind- and behavior-altering substances that have negative behavioral and health outcomes [68]. In 2020, 13% of rural adults experienced a substance use disorder [64]. Rural areas can vary on type of substance(s) abused. Residents of rural areas are more likely to experience unintentional opioid overdose deaths than those in urban areas [68].
| A) | True | ||
| B) | False |
Rural men are more likely than urban inhabitants to subscribe to gender role stereotypes that support self-reliance; therefore, they are less likely to seek help for health and mental health concerns [74]. As discussed, rural communities are tightly knit, with a high level of social proximity, which results in low levels of anonymity [7]. Further, rural families have been shown more likely to attach stigma to mental health disorders, including depression, compared with their urban counterparts [75]. Being circumspect and avoiding stigma can be challenging in small communities, where movements, activities, and visitors are public knowledge [76].
| A) | lack access to processed foods. | ||
| B) | often rely on supermarkets as the most common sources of groceries. | ||
| C) | are linked to poor health outcomes, including obesity and chronic illness. | ||
| D) | are defined as areas in which one must travel more than 100 miles to a supermarket to obtain fresh foods at affordable prices. |
Demographic and physical characteristics, availability of resources, and the social and economic environment of the community also play a role in maintaining health disparities. For example, some rural communities are considered food deserts, defined as areas in which one must travel more than 10 miles to a supermarket to obtain fresh foods at affordable prices [77]. These areas lack easy access to fresh produce; instead, dollar stores and convenience stores are the most common sources of groceries for rural families. Food deserts are linked to poor health outcomes, including obesity and chronic illness [78,79]. It is estimated that a total of 23.5 million people in the United States reside in food deserts, and urban and rural areas are affected [77]. In total, 2.3 million individuals reside in rural communities that are classified as low income and food deserts [77]. Studies have shown that simply opening grocery stores/supermarkets in food deserts does not ameliorate the issue, because rural residents may continue to purchase groceries at dollar or convenience stores if their transportation options are limited or if it is less expensive [78,80]. Schools and government workplaces are potential sources of food for low-income rural residents; farmers' markets have also begun to accept Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) and vouchers from the Farmers' Market Nutrition Program [81]. Typically, a combination of policies and environmental interventions is used in order to meet the food needs of rural residents.
| A) | Specialists and subspecialists tend to concentrate in areas with larger population bases. | ||
| B) | Medical clinician shortages are extensive, but behavioral health professional shortages are less likely in rural areas. | ||
| C) | Patients in rural care settings are more likely to be given psychotherapy for psychiatric illness due to a shortage of prescribers. | ||
| D) | The rural-urban provider disparity is expected to decrease as a result of demographic changes and insurance coverage expansions. |
Rural health disparities can be partially attributed to chronic staffing shortages in the health, mental health, and social services sectors in rural areas. A chief characteristic of the rural health workforce is one of maldistribution. In most of the country, health professionals concentrate in urban areas, creating an insufficient supply and unequal distribution of primary healthcare providers [84,85]. Per 10,000 population, there are 5.3 primary care physicians, 6.5 nurse practitioners, and 2.9 dentists, compared with 79, 81, and 43, respectively, in urban areas [86]. The difference is even more marked among behavioral health professions. Per 10,000 population, there are 0.3 psychiatrists, 1.6 psychologists, 5.8 social workers, and 8.8 counselors in rural areas. In urban areas, there are 1.3 psychiatrists, 4.0 psychologists, 9.6 social workers, and 13.1 counselors per 10,000 population [86]. This disparity is expected to grow as a result of demographic changes, insurance coverage expansions, and a decline in the primary care physician workforce [86,87]. Specialists and subspecialists are particularly limited in rural areas, as they tend to concentrate in areas with larger population bases, where they have enough demand for their services to be economically viable [88,89]. Rural counties are also historically disadvantaged in terms of mental health services [90]. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, more than 85 million Americans live in areas with an insufficient number of mental health providers; this shortage is particularly severe among low-income rural communities [91]. Patients in rural care settings are also more likely to be given pharmacotherapy for psychiatric illness due to a shortage of professionals qualified to provide psychotherapy.
| A) | Lower salaries | ||
| B) | Geographic and social isolation | ||
| C) | Acceptance of all new patients by providers seeking to establish their practices | ||
| D) | Challenges recruiting and retaining newly graduated professionals to small, rural communities |
Overall, an array of factors contributes to the shortage of professionals in rural areas, including [95]:
Challenges recruiting and retaining newly graduated professionals to small, rural communities
Lower salaries
Geographic and social isolation
Retirement/aging of current providers
Unwillingness to accept new patients by providers who are seeking to lighten workloads
| A) | True | ||
| B) | False |
One of the challenges in rural areas is the likelihood of cultural norms of self-reliance and stoicism impeding help-seeking. Self-care is generally not a priority, and when symptoms emerge, rural residents are more likely to use home-based remedies. In many cases, a physician is only contacted in the event of serious symptoms and after other avenues have been exhausted (i.e., at the last minute) [100]. There is cultural pride in being independent and being hard working. Taking time to take care of oneself is often seen as a luxury, especially in light of personal financial stress [29]. In a study with women in rural Appalachia, depressive symptoms of low energy, apathy, and low mood were considered at odds with cultural values of self-sufficiency. The women reported carrying on because they had little or no support in working or child and family care [101]. "Keeping going" had a moral and cultural undertone.
| A) | More rural children are uninsured than urban children. | ||
| B) | The child poverty rate is higher among rural children than urban children. | ||
| C) | Rural children have higher exposure rates to adverse childhood experiences compared with urban children. | ||
| D) | Rural children are more likely to have a body mass index (BMI) greater than the 85th percentile than urban children. |
In the rural United States, there are 13.4 million children younger than 18 years of age [102]. The child poverty rate is lower among rural children than urban children (18.9% vs. 22.3%). However, more rural children (7.3%) are uninsured than urban children (6.3%) [102]. Just as there are health disparities among adults in rural and urban areas, health disparities also exist for children. Rural children are more likely to have a body mass index (BMI) greater than the 85th percentile than urban children [103]. In a study of 186 rural children, 37% were overweight or obese and 43% of the families were at risk for food insecurity. Not surprisingly, families who were at risk for food insecurity were more likely to have children who were obese [104].
Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) are defined as potentially traumatic experiences that affect an individual during childhood (before 18 years of age). These experiences place individuals at risk for future health and mental health issues and risky behaviors in adulthood [105]. ACEs include witnessing family abuse and/or community violence, experiencing a family member attempting or dying by suicide, and experiencing child abuse and/or neglect. It can also encompass adverse family challenges, such as parental divorce, substance use, and parental incarceration [105]. Rural children have higher exposure rates to ACEs compared with urban children [106]. In general, regardless of where they live, children with more than four ACEs are more likely to live below the poverty line [106].
| A) | cocaine use. | ||
| B) | tobacco use. | ||
| C) | binge drinking. | ||
| D) | All of the above |
Adolescents in rural areas are more likely to report tobacco, alcohol, and cocaine use compared to their urban counterparts. They are also more likely to binge drink and to drive under the influence [103]. In general, rurality is associated with higher adolescent mortality related to unintentional injuries and suicide [103].
| A) | Poor continuity of care | ||
| B) | Transportation logistics | ||
| C) | Difficulty locating a physician/provider | ||
| D) | Excessive community pressure to obtain care |
Pregnant rural women may experience challenges accessing regular prenatal care and hospitals with obstetric units. Increasingly, rural hospital obstetric units are closing due to budget cuts and low reimbursement rates as well as challenges retaining staff [117]. Rural counties without a hospital with an obstetric unit and that are not located near an urban area have higher rates of out-of-hospital births, births in non-obstetric hospital units (e.g., emergency departments), and preterm births [118]. In a qualitative study exploring reasons rural women delay obtaining prenatal care, rural women reported lack of support or encouragement for prenatal care from family members (specifically, mothers) and the community [119]. Other women in the community often feel that doing without these services is the norm for rural women.
| A) | are more likely to live in skilled nursing facilities. | ||
| B) | are more likely to live in a household with someone. | ||
| C) | experience less food insecurity than those in urban areas. | ||
| D) | tend to have fewer issues with transportation than urban elderly persons. |
Overall, a greater proportion of the rural population (20%) is 65 years of age and older than the proportion in urban areas (16%) [127]. Approximately 75% of rural older adults live with someone in a household; very few (1.4%) elderly rural residents live in skilled nursing facilities [128]. Older rural adults experience similar challenges as other rural residents, but their experiences may be exacerbated by impaired mobility, frailty, and limited income. Food security and transportation are key issues.
| A) | True | ||
| B) | False |
The rural context may have significant influence on an individual's sexual identity development. Rural communities have been characterized as more conservative and religious, and thereby more heterocentric [137]. By extension, this often results in less supportive attitudes toward LGBT+ individuals and more discriminatory policies and laws [136]. Because rural communities tend to be small in population and tightly knit, there is greater likelihood that anti-LGBT+ attitudes and behaviors will affect residents. For example, parishioners in a worship service are often also the same people one interacts with at work, at grocery stores, and in healthcare settings [136].
| A) | greater levels of social anxiety. | ||
| B) | a less stressful coming-out process. | ||
| C) | more supportive community spaces. | ||
| D) | tend to spend more time building supportive social networks. |
The coming out process can be challenging under normal circumstances, but it may be even more challenging in the rural context. Because maintaining privacy can be challenging, individuals may find it difficult or impossible to avoid coming out to the entire community or to avoid scrutiny and stigmatization [136]. In some cases, they may feel ostracized in their places of worship and spiritually excommunicated [137]. Older rural LGBT+ individuals report higher levels of guardedness about their sexual orientation with people in their social networks compared with their urban counterparts [140]. Rural communities tend to have very limited LGBT+-friendly spaces (e.g., bars, clubs, bookstores, coffee shops), so LGBT+ individuals may feel that they do not have the support to come out or that their environment does not affirm their identity. Because of the discrimination, rejection, and ostracism they face, LGBT+ individuals may experience greater minority stress, which is associated with an increased risk for various health and mental health issues. For example, transgender and gender non-conforming individuals living in rural communities experience greater levels of social anxiety compared to urban individuals who have greater social supports (a protective factor) [141].
| A) | Rural veterans tend to be younger than urban veterans. | ||
| B) | About 2.7% of rural veterans served in the Vietnam War. | ||
| C) | Historically, the U.S. military has focused recruiting efforts in Midwestern rural areas. | ||
| D) | Rural veterans are more likely than urban veterans to have a diagnosed psychiatric condition. |
Approximately 5 million veterans live in rural areas of the United States, representing about 25% of the total veteran population [142]. Historically, the U.S. military has focused recruiting efforts in Southern rural areas [143]. Rural veterans tend to be older than urban veterans, a reflection of rural populations in general. Given that this population skews older, it is not surprising that about 27.8% of rural veterans served in the Vietnam War [142]. In addition, 9.7% of rural veterans served in Iraq and Afghanistan [144]. Because the median age of rural veterans is 65 years, this population also has a higher rate of chronic medical conditions, such as hypertension, diabetes, and obesity [142,144]. Similar to the general health and mental health trends in rural areas, rural veterans are more likely than urban veterans to have a diagnosed psychiatric condition (e.g., post-traumatic stress disorder [PTSD], anxiety disorders, depression, substance use disorders) and are at an increased risk of suicide [143; 145]. Veterans from very rural areas tend to smoke more than their urban counterparts, perhaps due to the higher rates of under- or unemployment and lack of specialized smoking cessation services [146]. More rural veterans than urban veterans are enrolled in the Veterans Affairs (VA) healthcare system (57% vs. 37%); however, rural residents often have to travel greater distances to access VA health services [144].
| A) | Coordination | ||
| B) | Gatekeeping resources | ||
| C) | Working independently | ||
| D) | Professional-centeredness |
Interprofessional collaboration is defined as a partnership or network of providers who work in a concerted and coordinated effort on a common goal for clients/patients and their families to improve health, mental health, social, and/or family outcomes [153]. Providers come together and view and discuss the same client problem from different lenses, which can ultimately produce more innovative solutions [152]. The client is not excluded from the process; rather, there is shared decision making among all team members, with the objective to improve client outcome [153]. Key elements of interpersonal collaboration include [150,152,153,154]:
Coordination
Shared knowledge and skills
Sharing of resources
Understanding of each team member's roles and competencies
Autonomy
Mutual trust and respect of each members' professional roles, identity, and culture
Building relationships
Communication
Responsibility
Accountability
Patient-centeredness
| A) | increased job satisfaction. | ||
| B) | reduced patient mortality. | ||
| C) | decreased length of hospital stays. | ||
| D) | improved use of specialty care and services. |
There are many benefits of interprofessional collaboration at each system level. On a micro or individual level, clients experience [154,155,156]:
Reduced patient mortality
Increased patient safety
Increased patient satisfaction
Improved health outcomes
Improved quality of life
Practitioners experience professional benefits, including [154,156,157]:
Increased job satisfaction
Greater equality of status between practitioners
Improved working relationships within teams, reducing team conflict
Increased staff retention
Greater creativity to come up with innovative solutions
On an organizational level, agencies, organizations, and hospitals should expect to see [150,154,156]:
Reduction of medical errors
Decreased length of hospital stays
Improved care coordination and continuity
More holistic services
Improved efficiency
Decreased adverse events
Reduction of cost of care
Lessened financial/budget constraints
Improved use of specialty care and services
| A) | True | ||
| B) | False |
As discussed, the smaller population size and tightly knit formal and informal social networks of rural communities can make for open and permeable boundaries, potentially negatively affecting practitioner-client confidentiality. Consider the following scenario [164]:
A pastor of a rural church also serves as a chaplain of a rural hospital. He sees two patients who are scheduled for surgery for the following week; these patients are also congregants. The surgeon is also a member of the church. At a weekly service, the pastor calls for prayer and divine guidance for the surgeon and the two patients by name.
| A) | confidentiality. | ||
| B) | client autonomy. | ||
| C) | dual relationships. | ||
| D) | working within one's competencies. |
This leads to the issue of dual relationships, which are defined as situations in which a professional has more than one role in a client's life (e.g., a financial, sexual, personal, and/or religious relationship). This is frowned upon and can rise to the level of an ethical violation because of the potentially coercive nature of the relationship resulting from the inherent power dynamics between the practitioner and the client [165]. Dual relationships have been identified as the top ethical challenge for social workers, counselors, and therapists working in a rural community [168]. However, dual relationships can be almost impossible to avoid. In a qualitative study with 10 social work research participants in a rural Alaskan community, participants reported difficulty avoiding dual relationships because their social, personal, and family lives often inevitably overlapped with clients' lives in a rural community with only one school, church, mechanic, and medical office [164,167]. Because of the overlapping roles, it was difficult for practitioners to maintain a professional identity and distance. Rural practitioners may feel they are always on call, even when they are not working. Attempting to maintain professional distance may be perceived as unfriendly and unhelpful. Practitioners' personal lives are often on community display or part of community discussions, and this information may be used in part to evaluate their credibility and trustworthiness [167].
| A) | referring clients to non-local agencies that offer telehealth options. | ||
| B) | employ the strong, naturally occurring helping relationships that exist in the community. | ||
| C) | offer to exchange services with practitioners in other rural communities via telehealth technology. | ||
| D) | All of the above |
Experts have identified steps that can be taken to mitigate the challenges of dual relationships in rural communities [169]. Referring clients to non-local agencies that offer telehealth options can help. Another option is to employ the strong, naturally occurring helping relationships that exist in the community to meet client needs. However, this has its drawbacks, specifically potential lack of confidentiality. Finally, practitioners can offer to exchange services with practitioners in other rural communities via telehealth technology [169].
| A) | True | ||
| B) | False |
Because residents of rural communities often have limited financial and transportation resources, practitioners may struggle with the ethical principle of distributive justice, which emphasizes the role of fairness in the distribution of services [170]. A practitioner might be unsure if referring a client to services is the correct step, knowing that the client has no health insurance and would have to travel long distances to access the service [163]. Practitioners should also have boundaries surrounding in-kind payment for services [164].
| A) | Staffing shortages | ||
| B) | Proliferation of subspecialists | ||
| C) | A norm of professional silence | ||
| D) | Lack of access to supervision, ethics committees, and trained ethics consultants |
The limited number of providers in rural areas can raise questions about competence. In professional ethical codes, competence is defined as a practitioner's knowledge, skills, and training and the importance of continuous education for professional development. It also encompasses the need to practice within one's professional competence. In its Code of Ethics, the National Association of Social Workers defines competence as a value requiring social workers to practice within their areas of competence and to continue to expand their professional knowledge and skills [44]. The American Counseling Association's Code of Ethics prescribes the same value and principle [171[. The issue that arises when the number of available practitioners is limited is balancing the need to limit practice to areas of competence but also meet the needs of an underserved population [172]. Is providing potentially incompetent care more detrimental than providing no care? In addition, coworkers and supervisors may be reticent to report incompetent care or ethical violations because it would further exacerbate the existing practitioner shortage. This can then be perpetuated, and professional silence might become the accepted norm [168]. If a practitioner feels he/she is not sufficiently trained in a particular area, it is common practice to refer a client to a specialist, but this may not be an easy solution in rural communities. Finally, practitioners do not have the same access to supervision, ethics committees, and trained ethics consultants to attain advice, consultation, and direction [163].