1. Worobey M, Gemmel M, Teuwen DE, et al. Direct evidence of extensive diversity of HIV-1 in Kinshasa by 1960. Nature. 2008;455(7213):661-664.

2. Bailes E, Gao F, Bibollet-Ruche F, et al. Hybrid origin of SIV in chimpanzees. Science. 2003;300(5626):1713.

3. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV-2 infection surveillance—United States, 1987–2009. MMWR. 2011;60(29); 985-988.

4. Clochesy JM, Breu C. Critical Care Nursing. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders Company; 1996.

5. World Health Organization. The Global Health Observatory: HIV/AIDS. Available at https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/hiv-aids. Last accessed March 5, 2022.

6. U.S. Department of State. U.S. Efforts to Combat the HIV/AIDS Pandemic in Africa: A Special Briefing by Randall Tobias, U.S. Global AIDS Coordinator. Available at https://2001-2009.state.gov/s/gac/rl/rm/47810.htm. Last accessed March 5, 2022.

7. U.S. Department of State. The United States President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief. Available at https://www.state.gov/pepfar. Last accessed March 5, 2022.

8. U.S. Congress. PEPFAR Extension Act of 2018. Available at https://www.congress.gov/bill/115th-congress/house-bill/6651. Last accessed March 5, 2022.

9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated HIV incidence and prevalence in the United. States, 2015–2019. HIV Surveillance Supplemental Report. 2021;26(1).

10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV Surveillance Report, 2019. Vol. 32. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/library/reports/hiv-surveillance.html. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

11. Simon V, Ho DD, Karim Q A. HIV/AIDS epidemiology, pathogenesis, prevention, and treatment. Lancet. 2006;368(9534):489-504.

12. Kahn JO, Walker BD. Acute human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. N Engl J Med. 1998;339(1):33-39.

13. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Guide to Clinical Preventive Services, 2014. Available at https://www.ahrq.gov/sites/default/files/wysiwyg/professionals/clinicians-providers/guidelines-recommendations/guide/cpsguide.pdf. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

14. U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Infection: Screening, June 2019. Available at https://www.uspreventiveservicestaskforce.org/Page/Document/RecommendationStatementFinal/human-immunodeficiency-virus-hiv-infection-screening. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

15. Branson BM, Owen SM, Wesolowski LG, et al. Laboratory Testing for the Diagnosis of HIV Infection: Updated Recommendations. Available at https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/23447. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

16. Branson BM, Handsfield HH, Lampe MA, et al. H. Revised recommendations for HIV testing of adults, adolescents, and pregnant women in health-care settings. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2006;55(RR14):1-17.

17. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Health Resources and Services Administration, National Institutes of Health, American Academy of HIV Medicine, Association of Nurses in AIDS Care, International Association of Providers of AIDS Care, National Minority AIDS Council, Urban Coalition for HIV/AIDS Prevention Services. Recommendations for HIV Prevention with Adults and Adolescents with HIV in the United States, 2014: Summary for Clinical Providers. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2014.

18. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV and Its Transmission. Available at https://www.tdi.texas.gov/pubs/videoresource/fshiv.pdf. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

19. Jin F, Jansson J, Law M, et al. Per-contact probability of HIV transmission in homosexual men in Sydney in the era of HAART. AIDS. 2010;24(6):907-913.

20. Boily MC, Baggaley RF, Wang L, et al. Heterosexual risk of HIV-1 infection per sexual act: systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Lancet Infect Dis. 2009;9(2):118-129.

21. Weller SC, Davis-Beaty K. Condom effectiveness in reducing heterosexual HIV transmission. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2002;1:CD003255

22. Giannou FK, Tsiara CG, Nikolopoulos GK, et al. Condom effectiveness in reducing heterosexual HIV transmission: a systematic review and meta-analysis of studies on HIV serodiscordant couples. Expert Rev Pharmacoecon Outcomes Res. 2016;16(4): 489-499.

23. Smith DK, Herbst JH, Zhang X, Rose CE. Condom effectiveness for HIV prevention by consistency of use among men who have sex with men in the United States. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2015;68(3):337-344.

24. Millett G, Malebranche D, Mason B, Spikes P. Focusing "down low:" bisexual black men, HIV risk and heterosexual transmission.J Natl Med Assoc. 2005;97(7 Suppl):52S-59S.

25. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Ways HIV Can Be Transmitted. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/basics/hiv-transmission/ways-people-get-hiv.html. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

26. Lab Tests Online. HIV Viral Load. Available at https://labtestsonline.org/tests/hiv-viral-load. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

27. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. Standard 1910.1030 Bloodborne Pathogens. Available at https://www.osha.gov/laws-regs/regulations/standardnumber/1910/1910.1030. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

28. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV transmission through transfusion—Missouri and Colorado, 2008. MMWR. 2010;59(41);1335-1339.

29. Leveton LB, Sox HC Jr, Stoto MA (eds). HIV and the Blood Supply: An Analysis of Crisis Decisionmaking. Washington, DC: National Academies Press; 1995.

30. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Bloodborne Pathogens: Occupational Exposure. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/oralhealth/infectioncontrol/bloodborne_exposures.htm. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

31. Levesque A, Bruneau J, Jutras-Aswad D, et al. Psychological distress increases needle sharing among cocaine users: results from the COSMO Study. J Addict Res Ther. 2014;S10:003.

32. Siberry GK. Preventing and managing HIV infection in infants, children, and adolescents in the United States. Pediatr Rev. 2014;35(7):268-286.

33. Flynn PM, Abrams EJ. Prevention of Mother-to-Child HIV Transmission in Resource-Limited Settings. Available at https://www.uptodate.com/contents/prevention-of-mother-to-child-hiv-transmission-in-resource-limited-settings. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

34. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV Among Pregnant Women, Infants, and Children. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/group/gender/pregnantwomen/index.html. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

35. Panel on Treatment of HIV-Infected Pregnant Women and Prevention of Perinatal Transmission. Recommendations for Use of Antiretroviral Drugs in Pregnant HIV-1-Infected Women for Maternal Health and Interventions to Reduce Perinatal HIV Transmission in the United States. Available at https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/adult-and-adolescent-arv/women-hiv. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

36. Ahn J, Cohen SM. Transmission of human immunodeficiency virus and hepatitis C virus through liver transplantation. Liver Transpl. 2008;14(11):1603-1608.

37. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV transmitted from a living organ donor—New York City, 2009. MMWR. 2011;60(10):297-301.

38. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Occupational HIV Transmission and Prevention Among Health Care Workers. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/workplace/cdc-hiv-healthcareworkers.pdf. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

39. Kuhar DT, Henderson DK, Struble KA, et al. Updated U.S. Public Health Service Guidelines for the Management of Occupational Exposures to Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Recommendations for Postexposure Prophylaxis. Available at https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/20711. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

40. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Updated Guidelines for Antiretroviral Postexposure Prophylaxis After Sexual, Injection Drug Use, or Other Nonoccupational Exposure to HIV—United States, 2016. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/programresources/cdc-hiv-npep-guidelines.pdf. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

41. UNAIDS. HIV-Related Opportunistic Diseases: UNAIDS Technical Update. Available at http://data.unaids.org/Publications/IRC-pub05/opportu_en.pdf. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

42. Office of AIDS Research. Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in Adults and Adolescents Living with HIV. Available at https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/adult-and-adolescent-arv/whats-new-guidelines. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

43. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA-Approved HIV Medicines. Available at https://hivinfo.nih.gov/understanding-hiv/fact-sheets/fda-approved-hiv-medicines. Last accessed March 10, 2022.

44. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approved Novel Antiretroviral Drug. Available at https://wayback.archive-it.org/7993/20170406203128/https://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm048571.htm. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

45. Office of AIDS Research. Interim Guidance for COVID-19 and Persons with HIV. Available at https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/covid-19-and-persons-hiv-interim-guidance/interim-guidance-covid-19-and-persons-hiv. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

46. LexiComp Online, Available to https://online.lexi.com. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

47. Larson KB, Wang K, Delille C, Otofokun I, Acosta EP. Pharmacokinetic enhancers in HIV therapeutics. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2014;53(10):865-872.

48. INSIGHT START Study Group, Lundgren JD, Babiker AG, et al. Initiation of antiretroviral therapy in early asymptomatic HIV infection. N Engl J Med. 2015;373(9):795-807.

49. TEMPRANO ANRS 12136 Study Group, Danel C, Moh R, et al. A trial of early antiretrovirals and isoniazid preventive therapy in Africa. N Engl J Med. 2015;373(9):808-822.

50. Panel on Opportunistic Infections in HIV-Infected Adults and Adolescents. Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Opportunistic Infections in HIV-Infected Adults and Adolescents: Recommendations from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the National Institutes of Health, and the HIV Medicine Association of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. Available at https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/adult-and-adolescent-opportunistic-infection/introduction?view=full. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

51. Luetkemeyer A. HIV InSite Knowledge Base Chapter: Tuberculosis and HIV. Available at http://hivinsite.ucsf.edu/InSite?page=kb-05-01-06. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

52. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves First Extended-Release, Injectable Drug Regimen for Adults Living with HIV. Available at https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-extended-release-injectable-drug-regimen-adults-living-hiv. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

53. Kaiser Family Foundation. Women and HIV/AIDS in the United States. Available at https://www.kff.org/hivaids/fact-sheet/women-and-hivaids-in-the-united-states. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

54. Agency for Health Care Policy and Research. Many People with AIDS Change Their Minds About End-of-Life Care as the Disease Progresses. Available at https://archive.ahrq.gov/research/apr99/ra11.htm. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

55. Heron M. Deaths: leading causes for 2016. Natl Vital Stat Rep. 2018;67(6):1-76.

56. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV Among Women. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/group/gender/women/index.html. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

57. Hewitt RG, Parsa N, Gugino L. The Role of Gender in HIV Progression. Available at https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/410358. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

58. Jarrin I, Geskus R, Bhaskaran K, et al. Gender differences in HIV progression to AIDS and death in industrialized countries: slower disease progression following HIV seroconversion in women. Am J Epidemiol. 2008;168(5):532-540.

59. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. NIAID Women's Health Research (FY 2013–2014) Biennial Report for the NIH ORWH Strategic Plan. Available at https://orwh.od.nih.gov/sites/orwh/files/docs/2-ORWH-ACRWH-Biennial-Report-FY13-14.pdf. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

60. American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Practice Bulletin 117: gynecologic care for women and adolescents with human immunodeficiency virus. Obstet Gynecol. 2016;128(4):e89-e110.

61. Maini MK, Gilson RJ, Chavda N, et al. Reference ranges and sources of variability of CD4 counts in HIV-seronegative women and men. Genitourin Med. 1996;72:27-31.

62. Heffron R, Donnell D, Rees H, et al. Use of hormonal contraceptives and risk of HIV-1 transmission: a prospective cohort study. Lancet Infect Dis. 2012;12(1):19-26.

63. Ralph LJ, McCoy SI, Shiu K, Padian NS. Hormonal contraceptive use and women's risk of HIV acquisition: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Lancet Infect Dis. 2015;15(2):181-189.

64. Blackstock OJ, Tate JP, Akgün KM, et al. Sex disparities in overall burden of disease among HIV-infected individuals in the Veterans Affairs healthcare system. J Gen Intern Med. 2013;28(Suppl 2):S577-S582.

65. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. HIV Among Pregnant Women, Infants, and Children. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/group/gender/pregnantwomen/index.html. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

66. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Revised surveillance case definition for HIV infection—United States, 2014. MMWR. 2014;63(RR3):1-10.

67. Panel on Antiretroviral Therapy and Medical Management of HIV-Infected Children. Guidelines for the Use of Antiretroviral Agents in Pediatric HIV Infection. Available at https://clinicalinfo.hiv.gov/en/guidelines/pediatric-arv/whats-new-guidelines. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

68. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Fact Sheet: HIV/AIDS among Persons Aged 50 and Older. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/group/age/olderamericans/index.html. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

69. Pilowsky DJ, Wu LT. Sexual risk behaviors and HIV risk among Americans aged 50 years or older: a review. Subst Abuse Rehabil. 2015;6:51-60.

70. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Truvada for PrEP Fact Sheet: Ensuring Safe a Proper Use. Available at https://www.fda.gov/media/83586/download. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

71. Grant RM, Lama JR, Anderson PL, et al. Preexposure chemoprophylaxis for HIV prevention in men who have sex with men.N Engl J Med. 2010;363:2587-2599.

72. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Preexposure Prophylaxis for the Prevention of HIV Infection in the United States—2021 Update: A Clinical Practice Guideline. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/hiv/pdf/risk/prep/cdc-hiv-prep-guidelines-2021.pdf. Last accessed July 19, 2022.

73. International AIDS Vaccine Initiative. Strategic Plan: 2017–2021. Available at https://www.iavi.org/phocadownload/userupload/iavi%20strategic%20plan%202017-2021%20synopsis%20.pdf. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

74. International Partnership for Microbicides. About Microbicides. Available at https://www.ipmglobal.org/why-microbicides/arv-based-microbicides-and-how-they-work/what-are-microbicides. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

75. Abdool Karim Q, Abdool Karim SS, Frohlich JA, et al. Effectiveness and safety of tenofovir gel, an antiretroviral microbicide, for the prevention of HIV infection in women. Science. 2010;329(5996):1168-1174.

76. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Youth risk behavior surveillance—United States, 2019. MMWR. 2020;69(1):1-88.

77. American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health and Committee on Adolescence. Sexuality education for children and adolescents. Pediatrics. 2016;138(2):e1-e11.

78. Roger AJ, Cambiano V, Brunn T, et al. Sexual activity without condoms and risk of HIV transmission in serodifferent couples when the HIV-positive partner is using suppressive therapy. JAMA. 2016;316(2):171-181.

79. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves Second Drug to Prevent HIV Infection as Part of Ongoing Efforts to End the HIV Epidemic. Available at https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-second-drug-prevent-hiv-infection-part-ongoing-efforts-end-hiv-epidemic. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

80. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves New HIV Treatment for Patients with Limited Treatment Options. Available at https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-new-hiv-treatment-patients-limited-treatment-options. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

81. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves First Extended-Release, Injectable Drug Regimen for Adults Living with HIV. Available at https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-extended-release-injectable-drug-regimen-adults-living-hiv. Last accessed March 6, 2022.

82. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves First Injectable Treatment for HIV Pre-Exposure Prevention. Available at https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-first-injectable-treatment-hiv-pre-exposure-prevention. Last accessed July 19, 2022.

83. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. FDA Approves New HIV Drug for Adults with Limited Treatment Options. Available at https://www.fda.gov/news-events/press-announcements/fda-approves-new-hiv-drug-adults-limited-treatment-options. Last accessed February 10, 2023.