1. Abraham HD, Aldridge AM, Gogia P. The psychopharmacology of hallucinogens. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1996;14:285-298.
2. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Hallucinogens and Dissociative Drugs. Available at https://nida.nih.gov/research-topics/psychedelic-dissociative-drugs. Last accessed September 23, 2024.
3. Dyck E. Flashback: psychiatric experimentation with LSD in historical perspective. Can J Psychiatry. 2005;50:381-388.
4. Halpern JH, Pope HG Jr. Do hallucinogens cause residual neuropsychological toxicity? Drug Alcohol Depend. 1999;53:247-256.
5. Jacob P 3rd, Shulgin AT. Structure-activity relationships of the classic hallucinogens and their analogs. NIDA Res Monogr. 1994;146:74-91.
6. Khatchadourian R. High Anxiety: LSD in the Cold War. Available at https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/high-anxiety-lsd-in-the-cold-war. Last accessed September 23, 2024.
7. Langlitz N. Neuropsychedelia: The Revival of Hallucinogen Research since the Decade of the Brain. 1st ed. Oakland, CA: University of California Press; 2012.
8. Monitoring the Future Study. National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975-2022: Secondary School Students. Available at https://monitoringthefuture.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/mtf2022.pdf. Last accessed September 23, 2024.
9. Halpern JH, Suzuki J, Huertas PE, Passie T. Hallucinogen abuse and dependence. In: Encyclopedia of Psychopharmacology. Berlin: Springer Berlin Heidelberg; 2014: 1-5.
10. Dean BV, Stellpflug SJ, Burnett AM, Engebretsen KM. 2C or not 2C: phenethylamine designer drug review. J Med Toxicol. 2013;9(2):172-178.
11. Greene JP, Ahrendt D, Stafford EM. Adolescent abuse of other drugs. Adolesc Med Clin. 2006;17:283-318.
12. Stone AL, O'Brien MS, De La Torre A, Anthony JC. Who is becoming hallucinogen dependent soon after hallucinogen use starts? Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007;87:153-163.
13. Kovar KA. Chemistry and pharmacology of hallucinogens, entactogens and stimulants. Pharmacopsychiatry. 1998;31(Suppl 2): S69-S72.
14. Richardson WH 3rd, Slone CM, Michels JE. Herbal drugs of abuse: an emerging problem. Emerg Med Clin North Am. 2007;25:435-457.
15. Aghajanian GK, Marek GJ. Serotonin and hallucinogens. Neuropsychopharmacology. 1999;21(2 Suppl):16S-23S.
16. Giannini AJ. An approach to drug abuse, intoxication and withdrawal. Am Fam Physician. 2000;61:2763-2774.
17. Abraham HD, Aldridge AM. Adverse consequences of lysergic acid diethylamide. Addiction. 1993;88:1327-1334.
18. Passie T, Halpern JH, Stichtenoth DO, Emrich HM, Hintzen A. The pharmacology of lysergic acid diethylamide: a review. CNS Neurosci Ther. 2008;14(4):295-314.
19. Halpern JH, Sewell RA. Hallucinogenic botanicals of America: a growing need for focused drug education and research. Life Sci. 2005;78:519-526.
20. Passie T, Seifert J, Schneider U, Emrich HM. The pharmacology of psilocybin. Addict Biol. 2002;7:357-64.
21. Garg A, Hippargi R, Gandhare A. Toad skin-secretions: potent source of pharmacologically and therapeutically significant compounds. Internet Journal of Pharmacology. 2007;5(2).
22. Shah AM, Calello DP, Quintero-Solivan J, Osterhoudt KC. The not-so-nice spice: a teenage girl with palpitations and dry mouth. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2011;27(12):1205-1207.
23. Johnson MW, MacLean KA, Reissig CJ, Prisinzano TE, Griffiths RR. Human psychopharmacology and dose-effects of salvinorin A, a kappa opioid agonist hallucinogen present in the plant Salvia divinorum. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2011;115(1-2):150-155.
24. Stříbrný J, Sokol M, Merová B, Ondra P. GC/MS determination of ibotenic acid and muscimol in the urine of patients intoxicated with Amanita pantherina. Int J Legal Med. 2012;126(4):519-524.
25. Nyberg H. Religious use of hallucinogenic fungi: a comparison between Siberian and Mesoamerican cultures. Karstenia. 1992;32:71-80.
26. Wasson RG. Soma: The Divine Mushroom of Immortality. New York, NY: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.; 1972.
27. Allen TA, Narayanan NS, Kholodar-Smith DB, Zhao Y, Laubach M, Brown TH. Imaging the spread of reversible brain inactivations using fluorescent muscimol. J Neurosci Methods. 2008;171(1):30-38.
28. Michelot D, Melendez-Howell LM. Amanita muscaria: chemistry, biology, toxicology, and ethnomycology. Mycol Res. 2003;107:131-146.
29. Escudié L, Francoz C, Vinel JP, et al. Amanita phalloides poisoning: reassessment of prognostic factors and indications for emergency liver transplantation. J Hepatol. 2007;46(3):466-473.
30. Satora L, Pach D, Ciszowski K, Winnik L. Panther cap Amanita pantherina poisoning case report and review. Toxicon. 2006;47:605-607.
31. Murray JB. Phencyclidine (PCP): a dangerous drug, but useful in schizophrenia research. J Psychol. 2002;136:319-327.
32. Meyer MR, Maurer HH. Absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion pharmacogenomics of drugs of abuse. Pharmacogenomics. 2011;12(2):215-233.
33. Morris H, Wallach J. From PCP to MXE: a comprehensive review of the non-medical use of dissociative drugs. Drug Testing and Analysis. 2014;6(7-8):614-632.
34. Jacob MS, Carlen PL, Marshman JA, Sellers EM. Phencyclidine ingestion: drug abuse and psychosis. Int J Addict. 1981;16:749-758.
35. McCarron MM, Schulze BW, Thompson GA, Conder MC, Goetz WA. Acute phencyclidine intoxication: incidence of clinical findings in 1,000 cases. Ann Em Med. 1981;10:237-242.
36. Marceaux JC, Dilks LS, Hixson S. Neuropsychological effects of formaldehyde use. J Psychoactive Drugs. 2008;40(2):207-210.
38. Maurer HH, Kraemer T, Springer D, Staack RF. Chemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, and hepatic metabolism of designer drugs of the amphetamine (ecstasy), piperazine, and pyrrolidinophenone types: a synopsis. Ther Drug Monit. 2004;26:127-131.
39. de Boer D, Bosman I. A new trend in drugs-of-abuse: the 2C-series of phenethylamine designer drugs. Pharm World Sci. 2004;26:110-113.
40. Kavanagh P, Dunne J, Feely J, et al. Phenylalkylamine abuse among opiate addicts attending a methadone treatment programme in the Republic of Ireland. Addict Biol. 2001;6:177-181.
41. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2014 Global Synthetic Drugs Assessment. Available at https://www.unodc.org/documents/scientific/2014_Global_Synthetic_Drugs_Assessment_web.pdf. Last accessed September 23, 2024.
42. Katagi M, Tsuchihashi H. Update on clandestine amphetamines and their analogues recently seen in Japan. J Health Sci. 2002;48:14-21.
43. Halpern JH, Pope HG Jr. Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder: what do we know after 50 years? Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003;69:109-119.
44. Jensen S. A treatment program for alcoholics in a mental hospital. Q J Stud Alcohol. 1962;23:315-320.
45. Cohen S, Ditman KS. Complications associated with lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25). JAMA. 1962;181:161-162.
46. Sessa B. Is there a case for MDMA-assisted psychotherapy in the UK? J Psychopharmacol. 2007;21:220-224.
48. National Institute on Drug Abuse. NIDA Research Report: MDMA (Ecstasy) Abuse. Available at https://nida.nih.gov/sites/default/files/1763-mdma-ecstasy-abuse.pdf. Last accessed September 23, 2024.
49. Novak SJ. LSD before Leary: Sidney Cohen's critique of 1950s psychedelic drug research. Isis. 1997;88:87-110.
50. Mangini M. Treatment of alcoholism using psychedelic drugs: a review of the program of research. J Psychoactive Drugs. 1998;30(4):381-418.
51. U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. Psilocybin. Available at https://www.dea.gov/factsheets/psilocybin. Last accessed September 23, 2024.
52. Radenkova J, Saeva E, Saev V. Psychoactive substances in different cultures and religious practices. Acta Medica Bulgarica. 2011;38(1):122-130.
53. Mithoefer MC, Wagner MT, Mithoefer AT, Jerome L, Doblin R. The safety and efficacy of {+/-}3,4-methylenedioxymetham-phetamine-assisted psychotherapy in subjects with chronic, treatment-resistant posttraumatic stress disorder: the first randomized controlled pilot study. J Psychopharmacol. 2011;25(4):439-452.
54. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2023 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Detailed Tables. Available at https://www.samhsa.gov/data/report/2023-nsduh-detailed-tables. Last accessed September 23, 2024.
55. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Results from the 2013 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Detailed Tables. Available at http://www.samhsa.gov/data/sites/default/files/NSDUH-DetTabs2013/NSDUH-DetTabs2013.htm. Last accessed September 23, 2024.
56. Burish MJ, Thoren KL, Madou M, Toossi S, Shah M. Hallucinogens causing seizures? A case report of the synthetic amphetamine 2,5-dimethoxy-4-chloroamphetamine. Neurohospitalist. 2015;5(1):32-34.
57. Baumeister D, Barnes G, Giaroli G, Tracy D. Classical hallucinogens as antidepressants? A review of pharmacodynamics and putative clinical roles. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol. 2014;4(4):156-169.
58. Halberstadt AL. Recent advances in the neuropsychopharmacology of serotonergic hallucinogens. Behav Brain Res. 2015;277:99-120.
59. Carbonaro T, Forster MJ, Gatch MB. The role of serotonin 2A and 2C receptors in tryptamine hallucinogens N,N-dimethyltryptamine and N,N-diisopropyltryptamine. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2014;140:e27.
60. Carhart-Harris R, Kaelen M, Nutt D. How do hallucinogens work on the brain? The Psychologist. 2014;27(9):662-665.
61. Krebs TS, Johansen PØ. Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) for alcoholism: meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.J Psychopharmacol. 2012;26(7):994-1002.
62. Patel R, Titheradge D. MDMA for the treatment of mood disorder: all talk no substance? Ther Adv Psychopharmacol. 2015;5(3):179-188.
63. National Institutes of Health. MDMA (Ecstasy/Molly) Drug Facts. Available at https://www.drugabuse.gov/publications/drugfacts/mdma-ecstasymolly. Last accessed September 23, 2024.
64. Baumeister D, Tojo LM, Tracy DK. Legal highs: staying on top of the flood of novel psychoactive substances. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol. 2015;5(2):97-132.
65. Wood DM, Sedefov R, Cunningham A, Dargan PI. Prevalence of use and acute toxicity associated with the use of NBOMe drugs.Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2015;53(2):85-92.
66. Oehen P, TRaver R, Widmer V, Schnyder U. A randomized, controlled pilot study of MDMA (± 3,4-Methylenedioxy-methamphetamine)-assisted psychotherapy for treatment of resistant, chronic post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). J Psychopharmacol. 2013;27(1):40-52.
67. Mithoefer MC, Mithoefer AT, Feduccia AA. 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA)-assisted psychotherapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in military veterans, firefighters, and police officers: a randomised, double-blind, dose-response, phase 2 clinical trial. Lancet. 2018;5(5):486-497.
68. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2020 Global Synthetic Drugs Assessment. Available at https://www.unodc.org/documents/scientific/Global_Synthetic_Drugs_Assessment_2020.pdf. Last accessed September 23, 2024.
70. Lodge D, Mercier MS. Ketamine and phencyclidine: the good, the bad and the unexpected. Br J Pharmacol. 2015;172(17):4254-4276.
71. National Institutes of Health. Commonly Used Drugs Chart (GHB, Ketamine, Rohypnol). Available at https://nida.nih.gov/research-topics/commonly-used-drugs-charts. Last accessed September 23, 2024.
72. Reed JL, Nugent AC, Frey ML, et al. Ketamine normalizes brain activity during emotionally valenced attentional processing in depression. Neuroimage Clin. 2018;20:92-101.
73. Serafini G, Howland RH, Rovedi F, Girardi P, Amore M. The role of ketamine in treatment-resistant depression: a systematic review. Curr Neuropharmacol. 2014;12(5):444-461.
1. Michigan Quality Improvement Consortium. Screening, Diagnosis and Referral for Substance Use Disorders. Southfield, MI: Michigan Quality Improvement Consortium; 2024. Summary retrieved from National Guideline Clearinghouse at https://www.mahp.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/02/mqicscreeningdiagnosisandreferralforsubstanceusedisordersFINAL2024.pdf. Last accessed September 30, 2024.
Mention of commercial products does not indicate endorsement.