1. Management of Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain Working Group. VA/DoD Clinical Practice Guideline for Opioid Therapy for Chronic Pain. Washington, DC: Department of Veterans Affairs, Department of Defense; 2017.

2. Dowell D, Haegerich TM, Chou R. CDC guideline for prescribing opioids for chronic pain—United States, 2016. MMWR. 2016;65(1):1-49.

3. Chou R, Fanciullo GJ, Fine PG, et al. Clinical guidelines for the use of chronic opioid therapy in chronic noncancer pain. J Pain. 2009;10(2):113-130.

4. Dowell D, Ragan KR, Jones CM, Baldwin GT, Chou R. CDC clinical practice guideline for prescribing opioids for pain—United States, 2022. MMWR. 2022;71(3);1-95.

5. Argoff CE, Silvershein DI. A comparison of long- and short-acting opioids for the treatment of chronic noncancer pain: tailoring therapy to meet patient needs. Mayo Clin Proc. 2009;84(7):602-612.

6. McCarberg BH, Barkin RL. Long-acting opioids for chronic pain: pharmacotherapeutic opportunities to enhance compliance, quality of life, and analgesia. Am J Ther. 2001;8(3):181-186.

7. National Comprehensive Cancer Network. Adult Cancer Pain, 2022. Available at https://www.nccn.org/professionals/physician_gls/pdf/pain.pdf. Last accessed September 8, 2022.

8. Mailis A, Taenzer P. Evidence-based guideline for neuropathic pain interventional treatments: spinal cord stimulation, intravenous infusions, epidural injections and nerve blocks. Pain Res Manage. 2012;17(3):150-158.

9. Federation of State Medical Boards. Guidelines for the Chronic Use of Opioid Analgesics. Washington, DC: The Federation of State Medical Boards; 2017.

10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. CDC Advises Against Misapplication of the Guideline for Prescribing Opioids for Chronic Pain. Available at https://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2019/s0424-advises-misapplication-guideline-prescribing-opioids.html. Last accessed September 8, 2022.

11. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Medication Guides: Distribution Requirements and Inclusion in Risk Evaluation and Mitigation Strategies (REMS). Available at https://www.fda.gov/media/79776/download. Last accessed September 8, 2022.

12. American Pain Foundation. Breakthrough cancer pain: mending the break in the continuum of care. J Pain and Palliat Care Pharmacother. 2011;25(3):252-264.

13. National Comprehensive Cancer Network. NCCN Guidelines: Treatment by Cancer Type. Available at https://www.nccn.org/guidelines/category_1. Last accessed April 21, 2021.

14. Dalal S, Bruera E. Assessment and management of pain in the terminally ill. Prim Care Clin Office Pract. 2011;38:195-223.

15. Gao W, Gulliford M, Higginson IJ. Prescription patterns of analgesics in the last 3 months of life: a retrospective analysis of 10,202 lung cancer patients. Br J Cancer. 2011;104(11):1704-1710.

16. Breuer B, Fleishman SB, Cruciani RA, Portenoy RK. Medical oncologists' attitudes and practice in cancer pain management: a national survey. J Clin Oncol. 2011;29(36):4769-4775.

17. Abrahm JL. A Physician's Guide to Pain and Symptom Management in Cancer Patients. 3rd ed. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press; 2014.

18. New York State Department of Health. Implantable Infusion Pumps for Non-Cancer Pain. Available at https://www.health.ny.gov/health_care/medicaid/redesign/2016/medtronic_sources_dla_rev.htm. Last accessed September 8, 2022.

19. Pergolizzi JV Jr, Mercadante S, Echaburu AV, et al. The role of transdermal buprenorphine in the treatment of cancer pain: an expert panel consensus. Curr Med Res Opin. 2009;25(6):1517-1528.

20. The Pew Charitable Trusts. States Likely to Resist CDC Proposal Easing Opioid Access. Available at https://www.pewtrusts.org/en/research-and-analysis/blogs/stateline/2022/03/01/states-likely-to-resist-cdc-proposal-easing-opioid-access. Last accessed September 8, 2022.

21. American Academy of Pain Medicine. Our Response to 2022 CDC Opioid Guidelines. Available at https://painmed.org/our-response-to-2022-cdc-opioid-guidelines. Last accessed September 8, 2022.

22. Sekhon R, Aminjavahery N, Davis CN Jr, et al. Compliance with opioid treatment guidelines for chronic non-cancer pain (CNCP) in primary care at a Veterans Affairs Medical Center (VAMC). Pain Med. 2013;14(10):1548-1556.

23. Meier B. Increase in Urine Testing Raises Ethical Questions. Available at https://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/02/business/increase-in-urine-testing-raises-ethical-questions.html. Last accessed September 8, 2022.

24. Baxter J. Minimizing the Misuse of Prescription Opioids in Patients with Chronic Nonmalignant Pain. Available at https://www.drugabuse.gov/nidamed/centers-excellence/resources/minimizing-misuse-prescription-opioids-in-patients-chronic-nonmalignant-pain. Last accessed September 8, 2022.

25. Passik SD. Issues in long-term opioid therapy: unmet needs, risks, and solutions. Mayo Clin Proc. 2009;84:593-601.

26. Holliday S, Hayes C, Dunlop A. Opioid use in chronic non-cancer pain. Part 2: prescribing issues and alternatives. Aust Fam Physician. 2013;42:104-111.

27. Strickland JM, Huskey A, Brushwood DB. Pharmacist-physician collaboration in pain management practice. J Opioid Manag. 2007;3:295-301.

28. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Risk for overdose from methadone used for pain relief—United States, 1999–2010. MMWR. 2012;61(26):493-497.

29. Hannon K. The Prescription Drug Crisis in New York State: A Comprehensive Approach. Available at https://www.scribd.com/doc/82474334/Prescription-Drug-Abuse-Crisis-in-NYS-Comprehensive-Approach-New. Last accessed September 8, 2022.

30. U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration. Drug Scheduling. Available at https://www.dea.gov/drug-scheduling. Last accessed September 8, 2022.

31. American College of Preventive Medicine. Use, Abuse, Misuse and Disposal of Prescription Pain Medication Patient Guide. Available at https://cdn.ymaws.com/acpm.site-ym.com/resource/resmgr/timetools-files/painmedsclinicalreference.pdf. Last accessed September 8, 2022.

32. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Disposal of Unused Medicines: What You Should Know. Available at https://www.fda.gov/drugs/safe-disposal-medicines/disposal-unused-medicines-what-you-should-know. Last accessed September 8, 2022.

33. U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Safe Opioid Disposal: Remove the Risk Outreach Toolkit. Available at https://www.fda.gov/drugs/ensuring-safe-use-medicine/safe-opioid-disposal-remove-risk-outreach-toolkit. Last accessed September 8, 2022.

34. University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Pain and Policy Studies Group. Achieving Balance in State Pain Policy: A Progress Report Card (CY 2013). Available at https://scholarworks.iupui.edu/handle/1805/699. Last accessed September 8, 2022.

35. Tamayo-Sarver JH, Hinze SW, Cydulka RK, Baker DW. Racial and ethnic disparities in emergency department analgesic prescription. Am J Public Health. 2003;93(12):2067-2073.

36. Robinson-Lane SG, Booker SQ. Culturally responsive pain management for black older adults. J Gerontol Nurs. 2017;43(8):33-41.

37. Singhal A, Tien Y, Hsia RY. Racial-ethnic disparities in opioid prescriptions at emergency department visits for conditions commonly associated with prescription drug abuse. PLoS One. 2016;11(8):1-14.

38. Rust G, Nembhard WN, Nichols, et al. Racial and ethnic disparities in the provision of epidural analgesia to Georgia Medicaid beneficiaries during labor and delivery. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004;191(2):456-462.

39. Cintron A, Morrison RS. Pain and ethnicity in the United States: a systematic review. J Palliat Med. 2006;9(6):1454-1473.

40. Ezenwa MO, Ameringer S, Ward SE, Serlin RC. Racial and ethnic disparities in pain management in the United States. J Nurs Scholarsh. 2006;38(3):225-233.

41. Hastie BA, Riley JL 3rd, Kaplan L, et al. Ethnicity interacts with the OPRM1 gene in experimental pain sensitivity. Pain. 2012;153(8):1610-1619.

42. Anderson KO, Green CR, Payne R. Racial and ethnic disparities in pain: causes and consequences of unequal care. J Pain. 2009;10(12):1187-1204.

43. Haozous EA, Doorenbos AZ, Stoner S. Pain management experiences and the acceptability of cognitive behavioral strategies among American Indians and Alaska Natives. J Transcult Nurs. 2016;27(3):233-240.

44. Pillay T, van Zyl HA, Blackbeard D. Chronic pain perception and cultural experience. Procedia Soc Behav Sci. 2014;113:151-160.

45. Campbell CM, Edwards RR. Ethnic differences in pain and pain management. Pain Manag. 2012;2(3):219-230.

46. Gagnon CM, Matsuura JT, Smith CC, Stanos SP. Ethnicity and interdisciplinary pain treatment. Pain Pract. 2014;14(6):532-540.

47. Sukhera J, Watling CA. A framework for integrating implicit bias recognition into health professions education. Acad Med. 2018;93(1):35-40.

48. Drwecki BB, Moore CF, Ward SE, Prkachin KM. Reducing racial disparities in pain treatment: the role of empathy and perspective-taking. Pain. 2011;152(5):1001-1006.

49. American Society of Addiction Medicine. The ASAM national practice guideline for the treatment of opioid use disorder: 2020 focused update. J Addict Med. 2020;14(2S Suppl 1):1-91.

50. Alford DP, Compton P, Samet JH. Acute pain management for patients receiving maintenance methadone or buprenorphine therapy. Ann Intern Med. 2006;144(2):127-134.

1. Kaye AD, Jones MR, Kaye AM, et al. Prescription opioid abuse in chronic pain: an updated review of opioid abuse predictors and strategies to curb opioid abuse (part 2). Pain Physician. 2017;20(2S):S111-S133. Available at https://www.painphysicianjournal.com/current/pdf?article=NDIwNA%3D%3D&journal=103. Last accessed September 21, 2022.