Patient Y is an African American woman, 62 years of age, who was diagnosed with type 2 diabetes 16 years ago. Her history includes hypertension, which is currently well controlled on medication, body weight 30 lbs above ideal, clinical signs of early renal failure, cardiovascular disease, and early-stage retinopathy. She reports that, "My blood sugar never has been too good, and I don't think it ever will be. Lately it's gotten worse." In your assessment, you note that Patient Y's blood glucose has ranged from 43–383 mg/dL over the previous few months.

Patient Y tells you that she feels confident in her ability to monitor her blood glucose and administer her insulin. She demonstrates that she is able to do this. However, she is concerned about her widely fluctuating blood glucose levels. She says, "Sometimes my sugar's too high, and I don't know what I did to make it high. Other times, it's low, and I get really scared that I'll end up in a coma." She goes on to report that if her blood sugar is less than 100 mg/dL, she will routinely treat herself with a tablespoon of sugar added to 10–12 ounces of orange juice.

Patient Y indicates that she has a good understanding of basic principles of meal planning and that her family is generally supportive of her dietary needs. Her dietary recall reveals that she makes many appropriate food choices when she eats but that her eating pattern is inconsistent. She skips or delays meals in some cases and eats large amounts at other times. In apparent frustration, she states, "It doesn't seem to matter whether I eat right or not."

Patient J is a man, 60 years of age, with a history of type 2 diabetes. He was brought to the emergency department after his neighbor found him at home with confusion, lethargy, right-side weakness, and slurred speech. Medical exam and work up in the emergency department revealed that Patient J was severely dehydrated and that his blood glucose was 860 mg/dL. He was diagnosed with HHS, an acute complication of type 2 diabetes. He was admitted to the medical unit on an insulin drip and for intravenous fluid and electrolyte replacement.

After Patient J's blood glucose and electrolytes returned to normal levels, his mental status cleared and he was free of any neurologic manifestations. While in the hospital, he was seen by the diabetes educator. He received instruction on diet, insulin administration, and blood glucose monitoring. His discharge plan was to return home on insulin injections with follow-up and teaching by a home healthcare nurse.

Discussion

Patient J's home healthcare nurse will play a crucial role in helping him prevent another episode of HHS and other serious problems associated with poorly controlled diabetes. One of the most important aspects of his care plan will be to teach and instruct him in SMBG. As an essential component of diabetes care, SMBG will enable Patient J and his healthcare team to monitor blood glucose levels and influential factors. Good glycemic control will not only help this patient avoid acute problems like HHS, it should also help him feel better on a daily basis. Good control can also help the patient avoid the devastating long-term complications of diabetes, such as blindness, renal failure, and cardiovascular disease.

Before developing a teaching plan for Patient J, a needs assessment to determine what he already knows about diabetes self-care should be performed. This should include areas of care such as nutrition, insulin administration, and blood glucose monitoring. The needs assessment in this case indicates that the patient is unable to correctly perform SMBG independently. He is assessed as being ready to learn this procedure because he clearly indicates that he is willing to incorporate this behavior into his daily life.

In order to most effectively teach Patient J this procedure, the principles of adult learning should be incorporated into the teaching strategy. Begin by finding out what he perceives as problems or barriers to successfully performing SMBG. This will empower Patient J by engaging him in the learning process. Furthermore, his interest may be stimulated by providing a brief rationale for what is being taught, including the benefits of SMBG. Continue applying principles of adult learning on an ongoing basis by keeping Patient J active in the learning process and providing him plenty of opportunity to interact and ask questions.

After teaching Patient J how and why to monitor his blood glucose, the nurse will ascertain his ability to perform this procedure by asking for a return demonstration using control solution. Once this is completed, finger sticking and bloodletting techniques may be covered, ensuring that he can perform these properly.

After the procedures have been reviewed, it is important to ensure that Patient J has a thorough understanding of how to interpret his blood glucose results. The patient should have an understanding of how to compare his food intake, activity pattern, medications, and daily stress level to blood glucose results using a diary. When he learns how these factors influence blood glucose, he will be better able to achieve and maintain glycemic control while avoiding problems associated with diabetes.

Patient R is a man, 49 years of age, with a 21-year history of type 1 diabetes. He is blind and lives alone without significant support from family or others. He also suffers from diabetic nephropathy and undergoes outpatient dialysis three times a week. He has been receiving home health nursing services for more than three years to assist with diabetes management.

Although Patient R has expressed appreciation for the support provided by the nurses, he is also resentful of their ongoing presence in his life. He longs for more privacy and more control over his own life and asks if there is any way that he can live more independently while maintaining his medical safety. The home health agency sends a nurse with strong diabetes management skills to Patient R's home to assess his potential for increased independence in the management of his diabetes.

Discussion

In her functional assessment, the nurse learns that, with adequate lighting, Patient R is able to see well enough to read a few words of large print with a magnifying glass. Other significant findings from a comprehensive needs assessment reveals that Patient R is able to:

With these abilities in mind, the nurse is able to begin formulating a plan for Patient R. Although he demonstrates the cognitive and manual abilities needed for self-care, his severe visual limitations must be addressed before he is considered safe to manage these tasks on his own.

One area of challenge for Patient R is related to measuring the insulin dose in the syringe. The nurse's initial approach is to observe the patient while he draws an insulin dose using syringes with the largest increment markings available. Because Patient R is on insulin doses of less than 30 units, he is able to practice using a 0.3-cc syringe. Not surprisingly, he is unable to see these syringe markings well enough to draw an accurate dose. Next, the nurse has Patient R try the same syringe using a magnifier. Even with this adaptive aid, he is still unable to consistently draw an accurate dose. The nurse concludes that it will be necessary to make arrangements for the patient's syringes to be prefilled by a sighted person and stored in the refrigerator for later use.

The nurse then considers the type and amount of insulin that Patient R is using. As a matter of convenience, he is using premixed 70/30 insulin, receiving 14 units in the morning and 7 units in the evening. Because he would be injecting different doses of insulin in the morning and evening, it is necessary to ensure that Patient R is able to distinguish between the two differently dosed prefilled syringes. This is accomplished using two glass jars, dissimilar in size and shape, to store the prefilled syringes. Each jar is then labeled in large letters using a bold black marking pen as "MORN" and "EVE." The nurse avoids using the abbreviations "am" and "pm" because of their similarity. She then works with Patient R on a plan to place a predetermined number of prefilled syringes in each jar, with the capped needles facing upward. The patient shows her where and how the syringes should be stored in the refrigerator to maximize his ease of use and minimize potential error.

Patient R's needs assessment has already determined that he is well versed in insulin administration practices. Therefore, the nurse has only to review those techniques with him and verify his competence by having him give a return demonstration. Part of her review includes reminding him to roll the prefilled insulin syringe gently between his palms prior to injection. She also verifies his ability to select the appropriate dose from the jars in the refrigerator and to select an appropriate injection site. She suggests an injection technique of gently placing the needle on the skin before inserting it, rather than using the conventional dart-like approach. This allows him better control over the site of injection.

The next challenge for Patient R is related to blood glucose monitoring. Although he has a meter that he is comfortable using, he is unable to read the results display accurately. The nurse discusses with him the possibility of trying a talking meter. The patient expresses that, because he is already familiar with his current meter, he would prefer to continue using it with a display magnifier if possible. The problem he perceives, however, is that the magnifying glass he is currently using is not sufficient for this procedure. To address this challenge, the nurse refers Patient R to the local chapter of the Braille Institute. Here, specialists are available to supply him with a prescription magnifier that is adaptable for use with his current meter. After receiving this device, the nurse works with the patient to ensure that he is able to accurately read the results displayed on his meter.

Although Patient R initiated these changes in his care because he desired more independence, the transition period is a time of anxiety on his part. After three years of having the security of a nursing visit twice a day, Patient R begins to question his ability to manage safely with less frequent nursing contacts. His concern is validated by the fact that he lives alone and does not have a significant other. It is important at this point to work with the patient and his physician on a plan for future nursing service that would ensure his safety while affording him the independence that he desires. Because he is socially isolated, it is agreed that Patient R should have face-to-face contact with medical personnel once a day. It is determined that outpatient dialysis appointments would meet this need for three days of each week. For the remaining four days of the week, a nurse would visit him at home. The purpose of these visits would be to perform a skilled assessment of the patient's current status and to ensure his medical safety on a daily basis. These nursing visits would include a review of Patient R's blood glucose results using the memory function of his meter. Syringes would be prefilled as needed. Periodically, the nurse would observe the patient performing his self-care procedures to ensure that changes in his functional ability had not occurred. The nursing service would continue to be available to Patient R 24 hours a day by telephone, with additional nursing visits made as needed. A medical social worker is involved in providing the patient with community resources and helping him obtain a diabetes identification bracelet.

This case demonstrates a problem-solving approach to diabetes self-management that promotes the independence of a visually impaired person with diabetes. While issues of medical safety are always paramount, other factors should be considered when developing a plan of care for the visually impaired patient. These factors include the patient's willingness and ability to become more independent, his baseline knowledge, and experience of diabetes self-care and resources available. In the case of Patient R, a safe and viable plan was developed that resulted in greater independence and promoted his sense of well-being.